|
CHRISTIANITY TODAY, THE MONTANIST CONTROVERSY, HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY
Christianity today, the Montanist controversy, history of Christianity, looking for God in a Modern Christian society, is there any place for Christ?
As Christianity has grown, so have the complexities and controversies surrounding its authority. This essay examines the changing nature and purpose of authority within the Church throughout the centuries, and looks at how and why this authority has been challenged. Within this global study, particular attention will be paid to the concept of immediate inspiration as seen in the Montanist controversy of the second century, and also to the causes of the present day challenges of institutional Christianity and its liturgy by many Christians.
The Montanist crisis was current during the middle years of the second century. A Phrygian named Montanus claimed to have been seized by the Holy Spirit, and delivered utterances of the Paraclete in a state of ecstasy (that is to say, whilst not being in full control of his faculties).1 Today, similar practices are seen in the form of glossolalia in the charismatic movements. Orthodox Christians of the time objected to the form of these utterances, for unlike the prophets of the Old Testament, the Montanists spoke in the first person with speech direct from the Spirit. They had no contact with the local churches of the day, and kept themselves free from its authority. The other feature of the movement was a very strict discipline: stricter than that of orthodox Christians. Montanism was seen as a challenge to the established Church of the time and its authority. By examining the roots of this authority, we can begin to see how Montanism came to be a challenge to the Church.
The initial source of authority in Christianity was Jesus. Professor William Barclay writes that:
"To have authority is to have the right to make statements and demands, and to act, by personal right, and without consulting anyone or anything else. To put it very simply, to have authority is to have the right to choose and to settle one's own course of action without consulting anyone else, and to have the right to tell people what to do and what not to do, what to believe and what not to believe on one's own personal responsibility." 2
It is these things, Barclay says, which gave Jesus his authority. Certainly, Jesus appears to have conveyed an air of authority to those who listened to his teachings; this can be seen in Matthew's gospel:
"When Jesus had finished saying these things, the crowds were amazed at his teaching, because he taught as one who had an air of authority, and not as their teachers of the law." 3
Jesus' teachings were notable for the fact that they were not based on any formal education, and it was this which lent them their authority. There is a clear contrast between the traditional and generally legalistic authority of the scribes and the divine, charismatic authority of Jesus. This charisma was particularly apparent when Jesus was gathering his disciples; Jesus had no hesitation in assuming that he could direct the lives of others as he chose. Presumably, these men had already heard Jesus teaching, and when approached by him and asked to give up their secure lives, their work, and their families they had no hesitation.
The New Testament is littered with other equally suitable examples which show that Jesus had an authority which was visible in all aspects of his work on earth. Acts such as his healing through exorcism were always received as a sign of great authority by those who saw him performing these miracles. After one healing, those watching Jesus said:
"What is this? A new teaching - and with authority!" 4
Barclay concludes by observing that:
"The authority of Jesus was an authority to direct men's lives and to settle men's destinies, and it came to him, as it came to the prophets, with a vision of God...The authority of Jesus was given and maintained by God." 5
This stems from an idea conveyed throughout the Gospels that Jesus was sent. As he said himself:
"My teaching is not my own. It comes from him who sent me". 6
During his lifetime, Jesus built up a large number of followers who can be classed as disciples in the general sense of the word. James Dunn , writing on models of Christian communities describes this in terms of "circles of discipleship" around Jesus8. Closest to him was the 'beloved disciple' (be he historical or symbolic) of the fourth gospel; then came the inner three: Peter, James, and John; then the twelve (see Mark 3:14); then those who went about with Jesus, including those women mentioned in Luke 8:2-3; and finally there were those who were especially close to Jesus, yet stayed at home, such as Martha and Mary. Dunn does not see these circles as distinct from each other, but says that they would have overlapped. It was not possible to say that any particular person or persons were closest to Jesus: they would all have been involved with him in different ways.
The presence of these circles of disciples meant that following the end of Jesus' earthly life there were people who could continue to spread his teachings and who could be turned to for guidance on what followers of Jesus should aspire to. In time, this was to develop into the bishops, priests and deacons structure which has formed the basis of Church authority ever since. However, as the Anglican-Roman catholic International Commission of 1976 noted, the authorities in the Church would never reflect Christ's ultimate authority, because as mere mortals they would still be subject to the limitations and sinfulness of human nature.9
The Gospels show clearly that Jesus intended his disciples to replace him as sources of authority. This led to the adoption of the term 'apostle' implying the idea of someone sent out by Jesus to continue his work. In Matthew's gospel, Jesus says to Peter that he will give him the keys of the kingdom of heaven.10 He also told his disciples:
"If you forgive the sins of any, they are forgiven; if you retain the sins of any, they are retained." 11
Clearly, Jesus intended his apostles to share among them the responsibilities which he had previously borne. Even at this early stage, then, we can see the beginning of a move away from one source of authority to twelve or more. It should not be thought that the apostles took on a dictatorial authority. In decision-making processes, the congregation met as one body to decide what to do, as when choosing a replacement for Judas in Acts 1:15-26. Although the Twelve might make the initial suggestions, the congregation always did the deciding. Whilst this emphasised the equality of all men before God, and the importance of community within Christianity, it helped to erode the original position of having a clear source of authority. The apostles, then, exercised leadership rather than authority. Whereas people came to Jesus asking what to do and seeking help, the apostles had to rely to a greater extent on going out to the people: they did not have a drawing force in the way that Jesus did.
As Christian communities grew up in far spread parts of the land, it was not possible for the apostles to cover all the ground themselves, so permanent officials were appointed in each local church. Initially, they took the form of deacons, and bishops and elders (these last two being one and the same at this time). The first bishops were appointed by the apostles, in areas where there was a group of Christians. The bishops directed the worship in their see, and were seen as having power from God, transferred through the apostles by the laying on of hands. With the continuous expansion of the religion, the bishops soon needed assistance of some form or another. Rather than appoint more bishops and thus devalue the authority of the existing bishops, they appointed presbyters, who had a similar role to today's priests, in that they prepared people for baptisms, led prayers, and administered the sacraments in the bishop's absence. Deacons and sub-deacons acted as general assistants to the bishops, and then to the presbyters as they came into existence.
Next page >>
1 Chadwick, Henry The Early Church Penguin, 1967 p.52
2 Barclay, William By What Authority? Hodder & Stoughton, 1974 p.7
3 Matthew 7:28-29
4 Mark 1:27
5 By What Authority?, p.110
6John 7:16
7James Dunn is Professor of Divinity at Durham University, and has written much on Pentecostalism and charismatic renewal.
8Martin, David and Mullen, Peter (ed.) Strange Gifts? Blackwell, 1984 p.2
9Taken from "Authority in the Church", a statement on the question of authority and its nature, exercise, and implications, as agreed by the Anglican-Roman International Commission (Venice, 1976); published by SPCK and the Catholic Truth Society, 1977. p.10
10 Matthew 16:19
11John 20:22-23
|
